The Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Church, as it is called, is an outgrowth of the early Christian church as developed in Ancient Rome and is ruled by a serial monarchy, which, owing to the practice of priestly celibacy was not dynastic but elective, at least in its present form. "Catholic" means "universal" and all-encompassing and it sort of is, although less so than in the past.
The Council of Elvira in 306 was the first explicit ruling that the upper church hierarchy was forbidden to engage in sexual behavior, even though they may have up till their ordination had children and wives. Of course 1 Corinthians 7:32-33 famously remarks that "The unmarried man is anxious about the things of the Lord, how to please
the Lord. But the married man is anxious about worldly things, how to
please his wife.". On the other hand those who oppose clerical celibacy cited 1 Timothy 3:2-4, which refers to a bishop as being the husband of one wife, and rules his house well and has his children "in subjection". In any case, it is clear that up till the 4th Century, celibacy in the church hierarchy was not an issue. Indeed the Apostle Peter, the first "pope" was himself married.
The Roman Catholic Church claims to be the original, universal Christian church founded by the apostles of Christ.
The Eastern Orthodox Church which represents the original Christian Church in Eastern Europe shares with claim with a couple of other ancient groups. Indeed the Roman Church and the Eastern Church, based in Byzantium were the same church until the formal schism in 1054. This resulted from a doctrinal dispute over matters such as whether or not to perform the Eucharist with leavened or unleavened bread, and the ultimate authority of the pope in Rome.
This led to reciprocal excommunications and in time massacres and military actions against one another against a background of the crusades. Although efforts were made later to patch things up, the two branches of the original church remain separate up to the present day.
The Great Western Schism. Another pre-reformation split in the church originated in the Avignon papacy. In 1309 the new pope Clement V, who was French, declined to take up his papacy in Rome but chose Avignon in southern France instead.
Nine years later Clement V died, was succeeded by John XXII, Benedict XII, Clement VI, Innocent VI, Urban V (who served both in Rome and Avignon), and finally Pope Gregory XI, who returned the papacy to Rome in 1376. This however was not the end of the problem, but the beginning of the Schism, as different parts of the church sided with either Avignon's or Rome's popes. France, Castile, Aragon, Naples, and Scotland sided with Avignon. England, Ireland, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, and Northern Italy sided with Rome. Portugal and the Holy Roman Empire vacillated between the two. Avignon continued to name popes (referred to as "anti-popes" after Gregory XI's departure for Rome. Urban VI, the Roman pope after Gregory was a something of a tyrant and most of the cardinals under him left and set up another papacy in Anagri which nominated the Avignon Anti-pope Clement VII. This rather unsatisfactory state of affairs lasted until 1409 when a council was held at Pisa to resolve the issue but at the last moment the rival claimants backed out and the council went on to name still another person as pope, this time based in Pisa. This was Alexander V, who was succeeded by John XXIII (not to be confused with the 20th century John XXIII). This John XXIII convened still a further council at Constance in 1415, where Martin the V was made pope, while the Roman pope stepped down to accommodate Martin V, and the Avignon anti-pope Benedict XIII, who had refused to step down was excommunicated. Thus this messy state of affairs came to an end in 1415.
The Reformation Martin Luther is credited with initiating the Reformation in 1517 by nailing his "95 Theses" to the church door in Wittenberg, a document outlining his differences with the Pope regarding certain church practices.
A major one of these being the sale of indulgences. This was the practice of monetary gifts to the Church serving to remit the sins of the benefactors. Salvation was not won by good deeds or by gifts but only by the grace of God and by faith in Jesus Christ. This removed material considerations or the judgements of ecclesiastical bureaucrats from the supposed bargain for salvation. He also objected to all church dogma that could not be supported by scripture. This got him in a world of trouble, beginning with the Diet of Worms in 1520, where he appeared and from which he fled, as the assembled group declared him a heretic and outlaw.
The fact of the invention of a movable type printing press by Gutenberg in 1450 had the effect of greater dissemination of printed matter, more reading of the bible and more of the faithful thinking for themselves after reading it. The 95 Theses was translated into German and other languages, printed and disseminated throughout Europe. Luther also, in his spare time translated the bible into German, which led to a hitherto unknown standardization of what became High German.
Lutherans in general view the Eucharist in a subtly different way from the Roman Catholics or the Eastern Orthodox churches. Transubstantiation is the the belief of the church that the consecrated bread and wine are transformed magically (i.e. in a way surpassing understanding) into the actual blood and flesh of Christ. Lutherans believe that the bread and wine are transformed "in, within, and under" the form of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ.
John Calvin was a French theologian who broke with the Catholic church in France in 1530.
This led to his exile to Basel, Switzerland, and eventually settling in Geneva, where he came to dominate the religious affairs of that city. He is considered the founder of the Reformed, Congregational, and Presbyterian churches. Chief among his beliefs was the idea of predestination, or the idea that those chosen to be saved have been known from the beginning. This goes against the idea of free will and seems to be incompatible with it. Only God can save your soul and only if God wills it. This goes against the idea that humans through their own works or by their own will can find a way to salvation.
Opposed to the ideas of Calvin in Protestant circles were the ideas of Jacobus Arminius. His "Five articles of remonstrance" stated that (1) Salvation is conditional on upon faith in Christ, (2) Christ died for all sinners, (3) Man is totally depraved and can't be saved unless through grace, (4) man has the choice through free will to resist God's grace, and (5) disagrees with the Calvinist idea that once a believer is saved, nothing will separate him from his salvation, ie "perseverance of the Saints".
The Arminians were known as "Remonstrants". Calvinists believe on the other hand that (1) Man is totally depraved and incapable of salvation by his own efforts (2) God chooses to save whom he will, which is a matter of his mercy towards particular sinners, (3) Christ died to save only God's elect, i.e. the ones through God's mercy he has chosen to save, (4) Grace is irresistably provided to those whom God has chosen, and (5) once saved, nothing will separate the chosen or elect from his or her salvation.
The Anglicans, or Church of England (in America the Episcopal Church) were formed when Henry VIII made his celebrated break with Rome and made himself head of the English church.
In doing this Henry and his successors made a limited foray into things Protestant, going so far as to stop requiring priestly celibacy, allowing the bible to be owned and read by lay people (as long as they were nobility), and other matters, but preserving much of the ritual and trappings of the Roman church. The governance of the church is through what is called "apostolic succession" in which the leaders of the church are its bishops, such as the Bishop of Canterbury, who choose their own successors. This is in contrast with the Presbyterian Church (see below) which is governed by a committee of elders in each congregation.
Back in the time of Henry VIII and in the early reformation, there was only one legal church, the Church of England, and it encompassed a spectrum of views regarding the bible, its sacraments, and ritual. In time the "dissenters" moved on to form their own churches more closely as religious diversity began to be allowed.
The Methodists started as a movement within the Church of England, with "Methodist" being originally a term of disapprobation. It was founded as a movement by John and Charles Wesley, and George Whitefield at Oxford when they were students there in the early 18th century.
It was a movement against the apathy and stuffiness of he Church of England, trying harder to be socially conscious, helping the poor, witnessing to prisoners, and with preaching with enthusiasm. Central to its beliefs were the ideas that (1) people are by nature, sinners, (2) faith alone will "justify them", and (3) faith makes one holy. While John Wesley favored the Arminian view that salvation was not pre-ordained, George Whitefield took a more Calvinist view as did many of the early Methodists who later went on to form the Free Church of England, or joined the Presbyterians.
What finally led to the split between the Anglicans and the Methodists was the shortage of preachers during the American Revolutionary War. This led Wesley to begin ordaining ministers according to his own criteria rather than those specified by the Anglican Church.
